Internal Validity in Longitudinal Homeless Research

Internal Validity in Longitudinal Homeless Research Establishing Internal Validity in Longitudinal Research with the Homeless Introduction When working with the homeless, it is necessary to identify potential factors that may contribute to the process of entering or exiting homelessness. These factors may take the form of demographic information, socio-economic status, and familial support, to name a few (Johnson et al., 1997; Chamberlain Johnson, 2013). Some of these variables may be described as negative reinforcements, in that they exacerbate a person’s likelihood of experiencing prolonged homelessness (Aubry, Klodawsky, Coulombe, 2012). These may include substance use, mental illness, arrest history, and absence of support network (Fazel et al., 2008). The temporal relationship between variables of this nature and homelessness is of particular interest to researchers. Determining whether substance use or mental illness precede and predict one’s chances of entering homelessness, or whether these variables have a greater chance of occurring following the manifestation of homelessness, will have implica tions for the development of interventions. While substance use and mental health disorders are shown to occur at increased rates among the homeless as compared to the general population (Fazel et al., 2008), teasing out their particular relationship with the onset, life course, or outcome of homelessness may be difficult to do. In their longitudinal investigation of 344 single adults recruited from municipal homeless shelters in the New York City area, McQuistion, Gorroochurn,Hsu, andCaton (2013) sought to measure the constructs of substance use and mental health, among others, to discover what relationship they had with whether or not someone experienced chronic homelessness, recurring homelessness, or successful rehousing over an eighteen-month period. The authors hypothesized that recurrent homelessness would be associated with characteristics that limit or impede a person’s ability to function, and additionally sought to determine if these characteristics may be independently predictive of recurrent homelessness, o r if they are associated with other outcomes (McQuistion et al. p. 2, 2013). Defining the variables The dependent variable in this report is described as the life course of experienced homelessness. The researchers limited their participants to exclusively include those who were experiencing homelessness for the first time, so as to observe differences in individual characteristics of those who go on to experience recurrent or chronic homelessness and those are rehoused. The authors recruited participants from the municipal shelter system, and relied on retrospective self-report to measure the continued progress of housing status. Interviews were conducted every six months, while brief check-in interviews were conducted monthly, in an effort to reduce recall bias. As the study proceeded, the authors divided participants into one of three categories: (1.) those experiencing recurrent homelessness – one or more further lapses of homelessness following rehousing, (2.) chronic homelessness – the absence of any housing following baseline interview, and (3.) stably housed à ¢â‚¬â€œ the acquisition and successful retaining of fixed permanent dwelling (McQuistion et al. p. 3, 2013). As a dependent variable, life course of homelessness in this study is sufficiently nuanced to include a wide range of possible experiential outcomes over a span of time, but the concept of â€Å"homelessness† itself is narrowed by the restraints of the study’s recruitment technique. While drawing their entire recruitment pool from the municipal shelter system of New York City ensured that participants were experiencing true homelessness (McQuistion et al. p. 2, 2013), this definition of homelessness still excludes those who may be sleeping in cars, residing in homeless encampments, occupying public spaces, or otherwise absent from the shelter system. There will be no way to say whether the results obtained in this study would be any different for people who may not utilize shelters upon entering homelessness. The independent variables in this study are described as â€Å"risk variables† (McQuistion et al., p. 3, 2013), demographic characteristics, and personal history information. The authors describe only a few of the instruments that were used in gathering this information. Upon initiating the baseline interviews, participants were screened for criteria of DSM-IV Axis I disorders (including substance abuse disorders). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV was used for this purpose, for the sake of brevity. The only Axis II diagnosis screened was antisocial personality disorder, because it is the only Axis II disorder in which behavioral history is the primary criteria (McQuistion et al. p. 2, 2013). While this may be convenient, excluding the diagnosis of other personality disorders further limits the generalizability of this data. History of living arrangement, education, income, employment history, criminal justice involvement, history of childhood placement, and current familial support were also obtained (McQuistion et al,. 2013). â€Å"Out-of-home placement† in childhood was defined as residing with a non-relative before the age of 18 (McQuistion et al., p. 3, 2013). Once again, the definition of this construct may be too narrow in scope, as it overlooks those who have had a similar â€Å"out-of-home placement† experiences, but have been placed with distant relatives through foster care. Familial disorganization during childhood was assessed by asking a series of questions related to parental substance abuse, parental criminality, family violence, and other similar items. According to the authors, â€Å"family disorganization† as a construct had a reliability ÃŽ ± coefficient of .71 (McQuistion et al. p. 3, 2013). Other reliability coefficients for the remaining instruments were not disclosed. Relationship between variables Following data collection after eighteen months, cases were divided into the aforementioned three categories of homeless life course (McQuistion et al. p. 3, 2013). The authors then used multinomial logistic regression analysis to investigate the relationship between each of the housing categories and the risk variables, while controlling for demographic characteristics (McQuistion et al. p. 6, 2013). Some noteworthy associations were discovered. On its own, substance abuse was associated with increased rates of recurrent homelessness when examined in a bivariate analysis (McQuistion et al. p. 8, 2013). Among the risk variables and dependent variables, no isolated variable was statistically significantly associated with housing status outcome following multinomial logistic regression analysis. However, the authors point out that upon combining three factors – (1.) substance abuse within 30 days prior to baseline interview, (2.) history of arrest, and (3.) a diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder – an outcome of recurrent homelessness could be exclusively predicted. These findings suggest that while no single variable may predict the life course of homelessness, a grouping of risk factors may increase the likelihood of one outcome over another. There are associations, particularly between substance use and the homeless life course, but they may not reach critical influence unless they occur in conjunction w ith other factors. These findings further illustrate the idea that the phenomenon of homelessness is complex, hard to explain, and involves the culmination of many forces (McQuistion et al., 2013). Discussion – internal validity The internal validity at issue in this study comes down to establishing the relationship between three statistically significant risk factors and an outcome of recurrent homelessness, specifically whether one causes the other. While the authors took steps to safeguard against the threat of confounding and selection bias by virtue of the potential independent variables they accounted and controlled for, there are still issues with establishing internal validity. Although the three variables that were collectively linked with recurrent homelessness were temporally established as preceding the outcome, there are alternative explanations for this. Arrest history and antisocial personality disorder have historically been closely related (Hodgins, Cà ´tà ©, 1993; McCabe et al., 2012). That these both occurred together is redundant, and suggests that one variable that could have covered both of these simultaneously had to be divided to produce the appearance of a significant association. Furthermore, the authors describe a substance use disorder within the past thirty days of the baseline interview as being the third predictive variable for recurrent homelessness. That reported substance abuse was present prior to the baseline interview – and subsequently the first of many recurrent homeless episodes – throws doubt on the temporal assumption of one variable causing the other. Participants could have forseen their entry into homelessness as their support networks fell apart, began using a substance to cope, entered homelessness, and continued using. In this case, entry into homelessness may have brought on substance use, rather than the alternative. That there exists this alternative explanation casts doubt on the internal validity of asserting cause-and-effect between this article’s dependent and independent variables. While this article does contribute to our understanding of the factors associated with recurrent homelessness – and may even suggest a temporal relationship – it is not flawless. Research attempting to identify the possible causes of a complex phenomenon like homelessness will undoubtedly encounter difficulties in doing so. Regardless, it is the collective contributions of these efforts that will continue to inform our knowledge base, and consequently our interventions, with this population. References Aubry, T., Klodawsky, F., Coulombe, D. (2012). Comparing the housing trajectories of different classes within a diverse homeless population. American Journal Of Community Psychology, 49(1-2), 142-155. Chamberlain, C., Johnson, G. (2013). Pathways into adult homelessness. Journal Of Sociology, 49(1), 60-77. Fazel, S., Khosla, V., Doll, H., Geddes, J. (2008). The prevalence of mental disorders among the homeless in Western countries: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. PLoS Medicine 5(12), 0001–0012. Hodgins, S., Cà ´tà ©, G. (1993). Major mental disorder and antisocial personality disorder: A criminal combination. Bulletin Of The American Academy Of Psychiatry The Law, 21(2), 155-160. Johnson, T. P., Freels, S. A., Parsons, J. A., Vangeest, J. B. (1997). Substance Abuse and homelessness: Social selection or adaptation. Addiction, 92, 437–445. McCabe, P. J., Christopher, P. P., Druhn, N., Roy-Bujnowski, K. M., Grudzinskas, A. r., Fisher, W. H. (2012). Arrest types and co-occurring disorders in persons with schizophrenia or related psychoses. The Journal Of Behavioral Health Services Research, 39(3), 271-284. McQuistion, H. L., Gorroochurn, P., Hsu, E., Caton, C. M. (2013). Risk factors associated with recurrent homelessness after a first homeless episode. Community Mental Health Journal, doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9608-4 1

The Stupidest Angel Chapter 19

Chapter 19 UP ON THE ROOFTOP, CLICK, CLICK, CLICK This is what it's all been about, thought Ben Miller as he climbed into the tiny bell tower atop the chapel. It had taken ten minutes to saw through the painted-closed seams of the hatch with the bread knife, but finally he'd made it, thrown the latch, and crawled from the top of the Christmas tree into the bell tower. There was just enough room to stand, his feet on narrow ledges around the hatch. Thankfully, the bell had been taken away a long time ago. The bell tower was enclosed by louvered vents and the wind whistled through like there was nothing there at all. He was pretty sure he could kick through the vents, hundred-year-old wood, after all, then make his way across the steep roof, drop off whichever side looked safe, and make it to the parking lot and the red Explorer he was holding the keys for. Thirty miles south to the highway-patrol post and help would be on the way. All of the years after high school and college when he had continued to train, all the hours of roadwork, all the weights and swimming and high-protein diets, it all came down to this moment. Keeping himself in shape all these years when no one really seemed to care would finally pay off. Anything out there that he couldn't outrun, he could take out with a lowered shoulder. (He'd played one season as a jay-vee halfback in addition to his varsity track career.) â€Å"You okay, Ben?† Theo yelled from below. â€Å"Yeah. I'm ready.† He took a deep breath, braced his back against one side of the bell tower, then kicked at the louvered slats on the opposite side. They broke away on the first kick and he was nearly launched out on the roof feetfirst. He fought to get his balance – turned around on his stomach and scooted backward out the opening onto the roof. Facedown, he was looking down the length of the Christmas tree at a dozen hopeful faces below. â€Å"Hold tight. I'll be back soon with help,† he said. Then he pushed back until he was on his hands and knees on the peak of the roof, cold wetness cutting everywhere he touched. â€Å"Please, bitch,† came a voice from right by Ben's ear. He jumped sideways, and started to slide down the roof. Something caught his sweater, pulling him back, then something hard and cold was pressed against his forehead. The last thing he heard was Santa saying, â€Å"Pretty fucking tricky for a jock.† Below, in the chapel, they heard the gunshot. Dale Pearson held the dead track star by the back of the collar, thinking, Eat now, or save it for after the massacre? Below him on the ground, the rest of the undead were begging for treats. Warren Talbot, the landscape painter, had made his way halfway up the pine-tree trunk that Dale had used to climb up on the roof. â€Å"Please, please, please, please,† said Warren. â€Å"I'm so hungry.† Dale shrugged and let go of Ben Miller's collar, then gave the body a shove with his boot, sending it sliding down the roof and off the side to the hungry mob. Warren looked behind him at where the body had fallen, then at Dale. â€Å"You bastard. Now I'll never get any.† Disgusting sucking sounds were rising from below. â€Å"Yeah, well, the quick and the dead, Warren. The quick and the dead.† The dead painter slid back down his tree and out of sight. Dale had some revenge to take. He stuck his head inside the bell tower and looked down at the horrified faces below. The wiry little biologist was climbing up the Christmas tree toward the open hatch. â€Å"Come on up,† screamed Dale. â€Å"We haven't even gotten to the main course.† Dale spotted his ex-wife, Lena, staring up, and the blond guy who had charged them with the buffet table had his arm around her. â€Å"Die, slut!† Dale let go of the edge of the bell tower and aimed the .38 down the Christmas tree at Lena. He saw her eyes go wide, then something hit him in the face, something furry and sharp. Claws cut into his cheeks and scratched at his eyes. He grabbed for his attacker and in doing so lost his balance and fell backward. He slid down the side of the roof and off the edge onto his feasting minions. â€Å"Roberto!† Tuck yelled. â€Å"Get back in here.† â€Å"He's gone,† said Theo. â€Å"He's outside.† Tuck started to climb up the Christmas tree behind Gabe. â€Å"I'll get him. Let me come up and call him.† Theo grabbed the pilot around the waist and pulled him back. â€Å"Close and lock the hatch, Gabe.† â€Å"No,† Tuck said. Gabe Fenton looked down briefly, then his eyes went wide when he realized how high above the floor he was. He quickly pushed the bell-tower hatch shut and latched it. â€Å"He'll be okay,† said Lena. â€Å"He got away.† Gabe Fenton backed down the Christmas tree. When he got to the lower branches, he felt some hands at his waist, steadying him down the last few steps. When he hit the floor, he turned around into Valerie Riordan's arms. He pushed away so as not to smudge her makeup. She pulled him out of the branches of the tree. â€Å"Gabe,† she said. â€Å"You know when I said you weren't engaged in the real world?† â€Å"Yeah.† â€Å"I'm sorry.† â€Å"Okay.† â€Å"I just wanted you to know that. In case our brains are eaten by zombies without me having a chance to say it.† â€Å"That means a lot to me, Val. Can I kiss you?† â€Å"No, sweetheart, I left my purse in the car and don't have any lipstick to touch up. But we can knock out one last stand-up quickie in the basement before we die if you'd like.† She smiled. â€Å"What about the kid at the Thrifty-Mart?† â€Å"Squirrel porn?† She raised a perfectly drawn eyebrow. He took her by the hand. â€Å"Yes, I think I'd like that,† he said, leading her to the back room and the stairs. â€Å"What's that smell?† Theo Crowe said, remarkably glad to turn his attention away from Gabe and Val. â€Å"Anybody smell that? Tell me that's not –  » Skinner was sniffing the air and whimpering. â€Å"What is that?† Nacho Nunez was following the smell to one of the barricaded windows. â€Å"It's coming from over here.† â€Å"Gasoline,† said Lena.

The Benefits of Political Narrative Essay Topics

The Benefits of Political Narrative Essay Topics So the very first step in receiving good narrative writing from students is to help them see they are already telling stories every single day. You can proceed and ask somebody else to go through your essay so that you receive an original look at it. Simply speaking, usage of writing has ever been part of our lives, and it'll stay like that. All the details relate to the most important point the writer is trying to make. You've got zero idea where you're. There are many things worth sharing. Describe the 1 weapon you would suggest to your army to be certain that you're adequately protected. It's great to have freedom and lots of folks are still fighting for their freedom. Concentrate on the way your actions affected your friendship. Describe a conversation with someone who you love and why the conversation was meaningful to you, along with how it impacted the remainder of your relationship. In American society, freedom is the fundamental notion which each individual must understand. Essay idea generators aren't the worst choice if you haven't any idea what things to write about. Templates like Descriptive Essay about Office can be helpful for someone who's planning to pay a visit to an office. Give reasons why you believe your plan would get the job done. Explain why you think that your plan will get the job done. Essays are available in many forms. Narrative essays are in fact pretty enjoyable to write. They do not have such arguments. They serve a wide variety of purposes. There's no need to discover extraordinary stories to compose a narrative essay that's interesting to read. Remember you need to use vivid and specific information. Contrary to other objective essays it not only provides the huge picture but in addition provides the inside specifics of the scenario. The issue is you don't understand how to compose a narrative essay. Body paragraphs reveal the principal events explained in the essay. You should restate your most important points and earn an overview of those. The following are a few basic ideas that could help you compose an excellent essay. A narrative essay should have a point, and therefore you don't need to tell just any story, but instead one that will have an objective. The ending of the essay will review the vital areas of the story and is the perfect place to look a bit closer at the effect of the event you simply shared. Don't forget that although the most important part of a narrative is the story, details have to be carefully selected to support, explain, and boost the story. If you take a close look at narrative when used as a noun, you will see many examples. Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, frequently the author's, therefore there is feeling along with specific and frequently sensory details offered to find the reader involved with the elements and sequence of the story. There are endless stories to tell, so decide on the one which will do the job best for the objective of your narrative. It's personal enough, it permits you to play with words, and it's both interesting and edifying for the general public. Once you have selected your topic, the next step is going to be to make an outline that lists the principal ideas you will discuss in your paper. You're always welcome to check through the other paper samples on our site to learn from them and find some ideas. Completing a paper may be time-consuming course of action. A narrative essay is thought to be among the most well-known varieties of tasks that students get all too often. Descriptive Essay on Market can be employed by tourists or visitors that don't have any prior understanding of a marketplace.

Response of Fredrick Douglass to Uncle Toms Cabin by...

Fredrick Douglass Response to Uncle Toms Cabin Frederick Douglass was arguably the most prominent African American abolitionist during the mid-19th century. He established his notoriety through his narrative entitled Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave published in 1845. Frederick Douglass also produced an African American newspaper, Frederick Douglass Paper, which highlighted the reception and critiques of Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin. Frederick Douglass praised Uncle Toms Cabin through not only his writing but in the critiques and letters contained in his newspaper. It is important to look at these reviews to understand Douglass intentions. However, C.V.S. from the Provincial†¦show more content†¦Ethiop also hopes the novels impact will continue to look out until every Uncle Tom is restored to his God-given rights - his full manhood - till every vestige of justice is done him (Ethiop). On 2 December 1853, Douglass himself wrote and published a letter to Harriet Beecher Stowe concerning her added involvement in abolitionism in Frederick Douglass Paper. In this letter Douglass directly, under his own name, praises Uncle Toms Cabin as a useful tool in the fight for abolitionism. He writes, I desire to express, dear Madam, my deep sense of the value of the services which you have already rendered my afflicted and persecuted people, by the publication of your inimitable book on the subject of slavery. That contribution to our bleeding cause, alone, involves us in a debt of gratitude which cannot be measured . . . . (Douglass) . By writing this letter, Douglass establishes the novel as both valuable and sympathetic to the plight of the enslaved African American. His stature as the premiere African American abolitionist affirms this to the public. However, Douglass politics on colonization were in direct opposition to Uncle Toms Cabin. C.V.S., a writer for Provincial Freeman, writes about Douglass, . . . [H]e pronounces colonization in Africa a nefarious and abominable scheme, and